Original Research

Guardians of privacy in the age of artificial intelligence: Librarians’ roles and realities in the Fourth Industrial Revolution: A case study involving two academic libraries in Cape Town

Yumnaa Ocks, Oghenere G. Salubi

Received: 29 Oct. 2025; Accepted: 02 Apr. 2026; Published: 27 July 2026

Copyright: © 2026. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

Background: The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) has introduced transformative technologies into academic libraries, offering opportunities to enhance access, efficiency and service delivery. The increasing reliance on digital platforms, data-driven tools and third-party services raises challenges regarding privacy, data protection and ethical information management.

Objectives: This study was guided by two research objectives. Firstly, it sought to investigate the current and projected adoption of 4IR technologies in academic libraries to enhance service provision. Secondly, it aimed to examine academic librarians’ concerns regarding user privacy within these evolving technological practices.

Method: Drawing on a case study of two academic libraries in Cape Town, this study examines librarians’ awareness, perceptions, and practices concerning data privacy, cybersecurity and regulatory compliance with the Protection of Personal Information Act. Using a qualitative case study of two anonymised academic libraries in Cape Town, the study examined librarians’ awareness, perceptions and practices regarding data privacy, cybersecurity and compliance with the POPI Act. The study also used thematic analysis to interpret the data and to provide insight into how institutional policies and technological infrastructures shape librarians’ responses to data protection obligations. Furthermore, the study highlights emerging challenges and opportunities for strengthening privacy practices within academic libraries in the context of evolving digital environments.

Results: Findings reveal that while libraries acknowledge the importance of privacy and confidentiality, gaps remain in institutional policies, technical capacity and staff training. The findings suggest that libraries must adopt a multidimensional approach, strengthening cybersecurity, enhancing ethical governance, fostering collaboration and investing in continuous staff development.

Conclusion: The study argues for a multidimensional approach that combines robust cybersecurity measures, ethical governance, collaboration and continuous staff development to safeguard patron confidentiality while advancing innovation.

Contribution: Libraries must navigate the intersection of technological advancement and ethical responsibility, while ensuring that emerging technologies reinforce, rather than undermine the values of access, equity and privacy.

Keywords: data privacy; academic libraries; Fourth Industrial Revolution; cybersecurity; Protection of Personal Information Act.

Introduction

In the context of academic libraries, privacy and confidentiality are foundational to ethical information service provision. As Jackson County Library Services (2019) asserts, a patron’s right to privacy encompasses the freedom to inquire, browse and explore information without fear of surveillance, judgement or the unauthorised exposure of their interests. This right is essential in fostering intellectual freedom and user trust. Equally critical is the principle of confidentiality, which refers to the institution’s obligation to safeguard any personally identifiable information (PII) shared by users during their interactions with library systems and services. As libraries increasingly integrate digital technologies and data-driven tools to enhance service delivery, the boundary between personalised service and intrusive data collection becomes increasingly delicate. It is therefore imperative that libraries strike a careful balance, utilising user data to improve user experience while still upholding robust privacy protections. The ethical management of user data is not merely a legal obligation but a professional and moral imperative in the digital era of information services. This perspective is shared by Akindote et al. (2024), who state that the potential for enhancing user experience and optimising operations in libraries must be balanced with concerns about data privacy, especially in regions where technology is emerging.

A study by Avuglah et al. (2020) notes that many developing countries face inadequate Information Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructure, including limited internet access and outdated technology, making it difficult to implement robust privacy measures in libraries. In the context of a developing country, South Africa’s libraries serve as critical enablers in bridging the persistent gap between information and communities. Despite possessing a comparatively well-established library infrastructure relative to many other African nations, significant challenges remain in ensuring equitable access to resources and services. Understanding the attitudes and practices of libraries in these contexts, alongside those of their user communities, can help contextualise the role of libraries in protecting patron privacy and fostering a culture of privacy among their users (Sadare, Moothi & Daramola 2022). The growing integration of these technologies has significant implications for how libraries manage, protect and ethically use patron data in an increasingly connected environment.

The study by Panday and Margam (2024) reports that modern libraries are increasingly integrating a wide range of digital tools and technologies, such as academic databases, reference managers, plagiarism detection software and Web 2.0 applications, including social networking platforms, blogs, wikis and video-sharing sites, to enhance operational efficiency and user experience. However, while these technologies offer numerous benefits, they also raise significant concerns regarding user privacy and data protection. Many of these tools collect personal data and track user behaviour, often managed by third-party providers whose data practices are opaque to libraries. This, therefore, raises ethical and practical challenges, as libraries traditionally uphold strong commitments to individual privacy and intellectual freedom.

The adoption of emerging technologies in libraries introduces new vulnerabilities and attack vectors. Raising critical concerns about data sovereignty, regulatory compliance, particularly with the Protection of Personal Information Act (POPIA), and liability in the event of security breaches. The growing complexity and sophistication of cybersecurity threats further exacerbate these challenges, as cyber attackers continually develop novel tactics, techniques and procedures to exploit weaknesses in library systems and networks. Studies show that libraries are custodians of highly sensitive patron information and intellectual property, making them responsible for implementing robust measures to safeguard against unauthorised access, data breaches and privacy violations (Oladokun et al. 2024). This reinforces the urgent need for libraries to balance technological innovation with the protection of patron confidentiality in an increasingly data-driven environment.

To address these risks, libraries are required to adopt advanced cybersecurity mechanisms such as intrusion detection systems, threat intelligence platforms, and security analytics tools. While these technologies can strengthen the ability to detect and mitigate evolving cyber threats, they also demand considerable expertise, financial investment and continuous maintenance, as well as requirements that may exceed the capacity of resource-constrained libraries (Shahzad et al. 2025). In addition to technical barriers, ethical and societal concerns complicate the deployment of emerging technologies in library management and security. For instance, biometric authentication systems raise critical questions around user consent, surveillance and the potential reinforcement of discriminatory practices. Similarly, artificial intelligence (AI)-driven algorithms designed for content analysis and recommendation carry risks of perpetuating biases or infringing on intellectual freedom if not carefully designed and regulated, particularly in cases where users lack awareness and have not provided informed consent.

Consequently, libraries must adopt a multidimensional approach that not only prioritises cybersecurity resilience but also upholds their fundamental values of access, equity and privacy. This requires navigating the delicate intersection of technological advancement, regulatory compliance and ethical responsibility to ensure that the integration of emerging technologies strengthens, rather than compromises, the integrity and mission of libraries.

Therefore, to move from principle to practice, it is essential to identify actionable strategies that enable libraries to translate these commitments into sustainable operations. There are strategies that libraries can employ to overcome barriers to the application of emerging technologies for security and management. Collaboration and knowledge-sharing within the library sector can facilitate the exchange of best practices, lessons learned and practical solutions for implementing emerging technologies. Partnerships with technology vendors, research institutions, and cybersecurity experts can provide libraries with access to specialised expertise, funding opportunities and collaborative resources to address their unique challenges (Akor et al. 2024). Moreover, investing in staff development and necessary training is essential to building internal capacity and expertise in emerging technologies and cybersecurity. Libraries can offer professional development opportunities, workshops and certifications to empower staff with the knowledge and skills needed to leverage new technologies effectively and mitigate security risks (Akor et al. 2024). Cultivating a culture of innovation, experimentation and continuous improvement is crucial to fostering a dynamic and adaptive environment conducive to the successful application of emerging technologies for library security and management (Isiaka et al. 2024). This study, therefore, aims to investigate the current and projected utilisation of Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) technologies by academic libraries for enhanced Information Services Provision, and to examine Academic Librarians’ concerns regarding user privacy within the context of information services provision.

Problem statement

Despite the longstanding commitment of libraries to uphold patron privacy and confidentiality, principles deeply embedded in the ethics, norms and traditions of the profession, there is growing concern about the effectiveness of these safeguards in the current digital era. Given the pivotal role libraries play in managing access to digital resources and personal user information, cybersecurity has become a fundamental concern, one that directly impacts the trust and safety of their user communities. International and professional bodies such as the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) and the African Library and Information Associations and Institutions (AFLIA) have consistently emphasised the importance of protecting user data.

Historically, libraries have employed measures such as nondisclosure of borrower identities, limited data retention policies and anonymous access to resources to uphold these values. However, in today’s increasingly digital information environment, where boundaries around data sharing and privacy are continually shifting, ensuring patron confidentiality has become increasingly complex. This complexity is further intensified by the growing dependence on third-party vendors, whose independent data policies often fall outside the library’s governance and control. As libraries increasingly rely on third-party vendors to facilitate certain digital services, patron privacy is becoming more vulnerable to external policies and data practices beyond the library’s direct control (Valentine & Barron 2022).

These vendors often operate under their own terms of service, which may compromise the confidentiality of PII. Additionally, communication services such as email or short message services (SMS) notifications, while convenient, expose user data to public networks, limiting the library’s ability to ensure full data protection.

If left unresolved, these vulnerabilities risk eroding user trust, weakening libraries’ ethical standing and undermining their ability to safeguard the intellectual freedom of their patrons. Unchecked reliance on third-party vendors may erode libraries’ autonomy, undermine their role as trusted information stewards, and expose institutions and patrons to legal, ethical and security risks. Libraries must therefore uphold their ethical obligation to protect patron privacy while navigating outsourced digital services, as this trust is essential for user confidence, responsible information provision and the protection of intellectual freedom. In this context, rapid technological advancement requires agile risk assessment frameworks and adaptive governance strategies, with higher education libraries proactively adopting innovative technologies and policies to safeguard sensitive personal and research information (Orr et al. 2024). While it is evident that the application of emerging technologies holds significant promise for enhancing library operations and management, it is also clear that their adoption is accompanied by considerable challenges. Libraries must navigate the complexities of technological innovation, interoperability, data privacy, cybersecurity threats, ethical considerations and resource constraints to realise the full potential of these technologies (Xiao et al. 2024). By embracing collaboration, investing in staff development, and prioritising ethical principles, libraries can overcome these challenges and harness the transformative power of emerging technologies to safeguard knowledge and empower communities in the digital age (Tella et al. 2023). The central challenge now lies in determining how libraries can sustain their role as champions of privacy, intellectual freedom and equitable access to information, while simultaneously navigating the ethical dilemmas, legal obligations and technological risks inherent in digital data management. This requires libraries not only to safeguard user trust in an era of heightened surveillance and cyber threats, but also to reimagine their professional responsibilities and operational frameworks so that innovation does not compromise, but rather reinforces, their longstanding values and social mission.

Literature review

Within today’s digitally driven environment, libraries face a growing array of cybersecurity threats that endanger the confidentiality, integrity and availability of their digital assets. Both academic and public libraries have become increasingly vulnerable to cyber-attacks such as phishing, malware, data breaches and insider threats. The digitisation of collections, the widespread use of online resources, and the shift toward cloud-based services have significantly broadened the potential attack surface. As a result, academic institutions must confront not only the risk of system disruption but also the exposure of users’ personal and research-related information (Ulven & Wangen 2021). A successful breach in such settings can lead to severe consequences, including reputational damage, financial loss, legal complications and the theft of proprietary information. These risks highlight the urgent need for comprehensive cybersecurity strategies to protect library resources and uphold the integrity of academic environments (Oladokun et al. 2024).

This view is corroborated by Cook, who notes that within higher education, the stakes are particularly high, as academic libraries serve as critical hubs for teaching, learning and research. They store valuable intellectual property, including scholarly publications and sensitive research data, making them prime targets for cybercriminals (Cook 2020). It is therefore important to note that these innovative technologies cannot be regarded as neutral tools that will automatically enhance information access, improve user services, or resolve challenges in knowledge management. The implementation of these tools in library environments is influenced by a diverse network of stakeholders, including system developers, library professionals, policymakers, vendors and regulatory authorities. Within this ecosystem, ethical governance and oversight become critically important, as they establish the principles that justify and regulate the purposes, practices and limits of AI deployment in library services. Such guidance is crucial in evaluating the appropriateness and risks associated with systems like automated cataloguing tools, recommender algorithms, and facial recognition technologies for access control, ensuring that their use aligns with professional values, user rights and legal obligations (Corrigan et al. 2023).

Adoption and utilisation of Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies in academic libraries

Recent scholarship indicates that the 4IR has emerged as a transformative era, integrating both digital technologies and human capabilities within the workforce (Olubiyo 2024). This period is characterised by rapid technological and socioeconomic developments, which have significant implications for the operations, policies and strategic planning of academic libraries (David West 2021). Within this context, 4IR encompasses a range of advanced technologies, including smart sensors, Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), the Internet of Things (IoT), the Internet of Services (IoS), big data analytics, Augmented Reality (AR), autonomous robots, additive manufacturing (3D printing) and cloud computing, all of which are deployed to optimise processes and enhance service delivery (Anshari, Syafrudin & Fitriyani 2022). The integration of these technologies in library environments not only facilitates more efficient and innovative information services but also challenges traditional library frameworks, necessitating a re-evaluation of service models, user engagement strategies and policy development to ensure alignment with the evolving technological landscape Bashir (2023).

Enhancing library services through emerging technologies

Research by Tshabalala and Dube (2024) states that 4IR technologies play a pivotal role in driving the digital transformation of libraries and enhancing the delivery of value-added services for users. As Sridevi and Shanmugam (2017) note, digital technologies are central to managing modern libraries. Likewise, Luca, Narayan and Cox (2022) corroborate and state that 4IR technologies, including robotics, IoT devices, big data analytics and cloud computing, significantly contribute to library transformation by increasing productivity across various management processes and enabling continuous, around-the-clock access to information and decision-making capabilities. This transformation provides libraries with a competitive advantage through the integration of diverse communication and digital platforms that support sustainable, responsive and user-centred solutions, such as virtual workspaces or remote workplaces. Furthermore, in library contexts, 4IR technologies facilitate optimised collection management by identifying usage trends, predicting demand for specific resources, and enabling digitisation for easier access and retrieval (Omame & Alex-Nmecha 2020). Additionally, tools such as robotic machines and virtual assistants streamline information retrieval processes, improving the efficiency and responsiveness of library services.

However, to fully leverage these technological innovations, library professionals must possess advanced digital literacy competencies, particularly in the application and management of 4IR tools (Luca et al. 2022). These competencies include understanding and implementing IoT-enabled systems to optimise workflows, applying cloud computing to deliver scalable and innovative resources, utilising robotics to automate repetitive tasks, and employing data analytics to inform collection management and service planning. Additionally, this view is shared by Jain and Akakandelwa (2016), who state that information professionals require the requisite knowledge, skills and expertise to act as equal partners in their organisations, ensuring that 4IR-driven initiatives effectively enhance service delivery.

Privacy concerns in academic libraries: Perspectives of librarians

Avuglah et al. (2020) conducted a study in Ghana that examined librarians’ perceptions of privacy within library environments, revealing a strong commitment among librarians to safeguarding users’ personal information. The findings indicate that most librarians (75.7%) believe individuals should control who accesses their personal data, and 71.6% assert that libraries should not share circulation records or internet usage data with third parties without proper authorisation. The study further revealed that librarians emphasised the ethical use of personal information, with 81.1% affirming that data collected for a specific purpose should be used solely for that intended purpose

While just over half of the librarians (52.7%) felt that they were doing all they could to prevent unauthorised access to students’ data, a majority (77%) recognised their role in educating users about potential privacy risks associated with internet use. Findings from the study indicate that librarians strongly supported transparency measures, with 74.3% endorsing the prominent display of privacy policies and 66.2% agreeing that users should be notified in cases of data breaches. However, views were divided on whether users should have direct access to personal data held by libraries, with 48.7% in favour and 39.2% opposed. Perceptions of self-censorship in online searching and reading habits were also mixed, with 39.2% agreeing or strongly agreeing to the practice, while a significant proportion remained neutral or disagreed, reflecting ambivalence toward privacy practices in digital environments.

Data collection and associated privacy concerns

Private companies and public institutions increasingly collect personal data for a range of purposes, including the provision of personalised services, targeted marketing and enhanced security measures. While these entities often deliver valuable and efficient services, the collection, storage and use of extensive personal information raises significant privacy concerns. These concerns have become more pronounced with the rapid advancement and widespread adoption of digital technologies. Central to the discourse are issues surrounding individuals’ rights to informed consent and access to their own data. As awareness of these rights grows, so too does apprehension about how personal data is handled by organisations. Research indicates that such privacy-related concerns may contribute to a reluctance among individuals to engage with services requiring the disclosure of personal information. In some cases, this leads to limited acceptance or outright rejection of emerging digital services and technologies (Tikkinen-Piri et al. 2018). Scholarly evidence affirms the legitimacy of these concerns, as security breaches present substantial risks to both library operations and their patrons. Such breaches have the potential to disrupt services, cause data loss and infringe on user privacy, directly impeding access to essential resources and research productivity. Extended periods of downtime or restricted access to digital platforms may further compromise the efficiency of library services. Beyond these immediate challenges, breaches often erode user trust, threatening the institution’s long-term reputation and reliability. For patrons, the consequences may include identity theft, financial damages or reputational harm resulting from the exposure of personal information. These vulnerabilities highlight the critical importance of implementing robust cybersecurity strategies to safeguard user data and maintain confidence in library services (Alferidah & Jhanjhi 2020). Additionally, research by Lonzetta and Hayajneh (2021) emphasises that this issue is particularly critical in libraries, given their custodial role over data such as borrowing records, search histories and personal identifiers. Libraries have an ethical obligation to safeguard this information, ensure robust privacy protections, and maintain user trust, while integrating digital and 4IR technologies in ways that do not compromise users’ rights (American Library Association 2019).

Academic library user data: Privacy awareness and policy challenges in South Africa

Moyana and Chuma (2023) assert that service delivery within organisations, including libraries, must be guided by legislative and regulatory frameworks enacted by the government of the respective country. In South Africa, libraries are required to operate in accordance with a broad array of legal instruments to ensure the effective, ethical and efficient provision of services. Mojapelo and Dube (2014) caution that additional legislative instruments also govern the development and operation of library and information services. These include the Protection of Personal Information (POPI) Act (No. 4 of 2013), the South African Community Library and Information Services Bill (2010), the South African Library for the Blind Act (No. 91 of 1998), the South African Public Library and Information Services Bill, and the Municipal Finance Management Act (No. 56 of 2003).

These laws provide critical guidelines for information access, user privacy, governance and financial accountability in libraries. However, despite the comprehensive legislative landscape, non-compliance remains a major challenge in many libraries across the country. As noted by Zulu, Ngoepe and Saurombe (2017), and more recently by Chuma and Mthethwa (2024), these challenges are frequently attributed to limited awareness of legal requirements, insufficient training, and weak policy implementation. Such gaps not only compromise compliance with regulatory mandates but also risk undermining the quality of library services and limiting their capacity to respond effectively to user needs. Failure to adhere to legal requirements can expose libraries to numerous risks, such as compromised data privacy, limitations in information access, and the inability to comply with established national service benchmarks (Eneya, Mostert & Ocholla 2020). In addition, non-alignment with statutory frameworks may jeopardise libraries’ eligibility for public funding and institutional backing, thereby intensifying existing challenges of limited resources and operational inefficiencies.

Research questions

The findings presented below summarizes the key themes that emerged from the analysis and interpretation of participants’ responses regarding academic librarians’ concerns about user privacy in the context of information service provision.

• How are academic libraries currently utilising, or planning to utilise, Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) technologies to enhance the provision of information services?
• What concerns do academic librarians have regarding user privacy in the context of information services provision?

Theoretical framework

This study is underpinned by the Generally Accepted Privacy Principles (GAPP) theoretical framework, which serves as the lens through which issues of privacy, data protection and ethical information management in libraries are examined (Prosch 2008). The purpose of employing GAPP is to provide a structured basis for understanding how librarians conceptualise, interpret and respond to privacy concerns within the digital and data-driven environment of academic libraries. By applying this framework, the study is able to contextualise librarians’ awareness, practices, and challenges in relation to regulatory compliance and emerging technologies.

Research methods and design

A qualitative case study approach was adopted, focusing on two anonymised academic libraries located in Cape Town. This selected approach provided an in-depth exploration of data privacy practices within the academic library context. Data collection included semi-structured individual interviews with library staff from both institutions, allowing for flexibility in probing participants’ experiences and perceptions while maintaining consistency across interviews. At University A, all eight designated librarians participated, resulting in a 100% response rate. By contrast, University B achieved a 64% response rate, with seven out of the 11 targeted librarians taking part in the study.

Furthermore, thematic analysis was used to identify patterns, risks and practices related to data privacy and 4IR technologies in libraries. This involved familiarisation with the data, initial coding and the identification and refinement of key themes. Through this process, recurring patterns, perceived risk and dangers and institutional practices related to data privacy and the integration of 4IR technologies in academic libraries were identified and interpreted.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Humanities and Social Science Research Ethics Committee of the University of the Western Cape (Ref. No. HS23/1/17). To maintain anonymity and protect the identity of research participants, only one general identifier per quotation has been added to this article.

Results

Figure 1 presents the Generally Accepted Privacy Principles (GAPP), which provide a comprehensive framework for guiding organisations in strengthening their privacy policies, procedures, and practices (Prosch, 2008). These principles informed the study’s methodological approach by offering a structured theoretical lens through which data privacy practices in academic libraries were examined.

FIGURE 1: General accepted privacy principles framework.

Figure 2 presents a word cloud developed from the findings of this study. The word cloud (Figure 2) illustrates the key themes that emerged from the data analysis, depicting the current and projected utilisation of Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) technologies by academic libraries to enhance information service provision (Ocks, 2026).

FIGURE 2: Word depiction of current and projected utilisation of Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies by academic libraries for enhanced information services provision.

Findings related to research question 1

The first research question of this study was to look at current and projected utilisation of 4IR technologies by academic libraries for enhanced Information Services Provision.

The following key themes emerged from the data in the word depiction below:

Theme one: Data-driven decisions

The current projected utilisation of Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies: Respondents were asked how their library utilises user data to enhance and improve information services, and based on the study’s results, librarians noted the importance of using user data in the refinement and improvement and enhancement of library services. Several respondents also confirmed their use of data in library services is used to enhance efficiency and streamline routine processes. One librarian affirmed and stated, ‘Yes, we do make use of users’ data for improved services’, while another emphasised, ‘We use user data to improve information services and to assist in making decisions to improve our libraries’. This demonstrates the library’s commitment to leveraging user data for service enhancement and operational efficiency. This data confirms that librarians use data to make informed decisions, resulting in improvements to the services provided by the library. Kostecki (2024) supports these observations and agrees that by analysing data, organisations gain deeper insights into market trends, customer preferences and operational performance. He further elaborates and states that this enables more accurate forecasting, a better understanding of customer needs, and making data-driven decisions. Similar results were also obtained in a study by Speciale et al. (2023), presenting the Reading [&] Machine project, a project which used digital technologies to enhance the appeal of public libraries and enrich the user experience.

Central to this project is the development of an application that supports users in their book selection process by generating personalised reading recommendations through a recommendation system (RecSys). Their study utilised a comprehensive dataset comprising 9 years of user loan records from the network of public libraries in Turin, Italy. The suggestions and recommendations were presented via an interactive Virtual Reality (VR)-based Graphical User Interface (GUI), offering an engaging and intuitive way for users to explore library collections, Speciale et al. (2023).

The study’s findings also indicate that user data serves as a vital tool for making informed decisions aimed at improving and optimising library operations and resource management. One librarian remarked:

‘Because data is powerful to make informed decisions.’ (A senior academic librarian)

highlighting the importance of data-driven strategies. Another respondent elaborated and stated:

‘We basically need to know the basic components of the student body, i.e., how many registered students are there for which faculty or departments, ensuring that we are meeting the ratio for resources vs. students.’ (A faculty academic librarian)

These responses illustrate how data support informed planning and resource distribution. Jain, Mukherjee and Tanvir (2024) agree with the results and elaborate that by utilising large volumes of data and advanced analytical tools, companies can gain deep insights into their operations and make informed decisions that ultimately enhance productivity, reduce costs and improve customer satisfaction.

Additionally, in support of the findings discussed above, another question posed to respondents explored the use of 4IR technologies and the aggregation of user data to improve the efficiency of information service delivery. A key insight that emerged is the importance of user data in supporting informed decision-making within the library context. One librarian stated:

‘We use the data to make informed and better decisions and resource allocation and effective planning.’ (Another faculty librarian)

Another respondent added:

‘We use data to manage resource allocation, ensuring that high-demand materials are readily available.’ (A librarian)

The findings show that libraries are actively using data to support informed decision-making and effective resource planning. The ability to collect, analyse and interpret large volumes of data enables libraries to gain deeper insights into user needs, optimise the delivery of services, and plan more strategically. The results also highlight a clear emphasis on using data to guide decisions that improve service delivery and align resources with user demand.

The findings of this study also align with existing literature, affirming the growing involvement of data-driven decision-making in key functional areas of academic libraries. This includes its application in educational services, the creation of information scenarios, and the development of emerging roles within academic librarianship. Notably, research support has also been highlighted as a central area where data-informed strategies are increasingly applied (Koltay 2019). These insights are consistent with the observations presented in recent scholarly work, which showcases the evolving landscape of academic libraries and the expanding prospects of data-driven practices in shaping their strategic direction and service delivery (Sukula & Balutagi 2023).

Although the findings concur with previous studies, it is important to note that some scholars hold differing perspectives. They suggest that beyond organisation-wide datasets, libraries independently collect substantial amounts of data for their internal operations. Similar to the field of learning analytics, there is a growing interest in leveraging this data for analytical purposes aimed at improving library services. However, such use must be approached with caution (Coleman 2020). He elaborates and states that while initiatives such as clustering library users based on usage frequency and aligning these patterns with demographic data may seem beneficial for targeted outreach, they raise serious ethical concerns and can constitute a clear breach of user privacy.

Nevertheless, the responsible use of aggregated library data can still yield valuable insights. For example, Lund (2020) demonstrates how institution-level library data, rather than individual user data, can be utilised to analyse the functioning of academic and public libraries. Such approaches provide meaningful input for policy development without compromising individual privacy, thereby striking a balance between data-informed decision-making and ethical responsibility in library practice. It is also essential that libraries use personal data solely for its intended and communicated purposes. This practice not only ensures ethical management of user information but also aligns with data protection principles such as purpose limitation, which is a cornerstone of many privacy frameworks. This aligns with the ‘Collection – Personal Information’ principle of the Generally Accepted Privacy Principles (GAPP) framework, which emphasises that an organisation must collect personal information only for the purposes explicitly identified in the notice provided to the individual. By adhering to this principle, libraries help maintain transparency, build user trust and reduce the risk of data misuse or unauthorised secondary use.

Theme two: Tailored and personalised services

Use of data for tailored and personalised library services: Library staff participants were asked how their library utilises user data to enhance information services, and a strong theme that emerged across responses was the effort to provide more customised and tailored services.

Several respondents noted that data helps in customising services to meet users’ specific needs. One librarian stated:

‘Yes, we currently use user data to tailor our services based on their information needs.’ (Resources and Systems librarian)

This demonstrates the library’s commitment to offering personalised experiences that cater to the unique preferences of its patrons. Gajbhiye (2024) provides further information and states that AI-powered search engines and RecSys are revolutionising the way patrons discover library resources. He elaborates and states that by analysing user behaviour and preferences, AI algorithms can provide personalised recommendations, making it easier and faster for patrons to find relevant materials amidst vast collections.

Moreover, tailoring services based on user information needs significantly improves service delivery. This is corroborated by Abudulsalami et al. (2024), who also mention that AI technologies significantly improve the user experience of library clients by providing more accurate search results and personalised recommendations. Nguyen-Trung, Saeri and Kaufman (2024) also supported the views of the previously cited authors, stating that AI-driven systems can enhance user satisfaction by making information retrieval more efficient and tailored to individual needs. This personalisation helps users find relevant resources more quickly and effectively. The authors further state that data-driven strategies empower libraries to provide personalised experiences tailored to individual user preferences and interests (Nguyen-Trung et al. 2024)

These research findings prove that these technologies enable libraries to respond to the unique needs of different user groups by aligning resources and services accordingly. Furthermore, when respondents were asked in the study how they are currently utilising 4IR technologies and applications in their library services, one librarian also indicated that:

‘We also have to ensure we cater for our senior group of senior students, and for this, we have to gather relevant data that ensures that we have the necessary resources tailored to their needs.’ (System Administrator librarian)

Another respondent reinforced the focus on personalisation and stated:

‘We plan to expand our data utilisation by offering more tailored services.’ (Resources and Systems librarian)

One of the other respondents mentioned that ‘We intend to use this data to offer more personalised learning content to our users’. Furthermore, the data suggests that personalised services, informed by user data, play an increasingly pivotal role in library operations by offering more precise recommendations and ultimately contributing to enhanced user satisfaction. Results indicated that users were receptive to personalised resource selection, particularly when the process was automated based on their speciality, although manual customisation was less common. Furthermore, research indicates that various libraries are also adopting these technologies in diverse and innovative ways, namely, the Tsinghua University Library, which introduced Xiaotu, an AI-based participatory library service that interacts with users through a mobile app or social network platforms (Yao et al. 2015). Xiaotu provides real-time virtual reference services by combining the library’s capabilities with social networks and third-party resources. The system features a self-learning function that updates its knowledge base based on user interactions, ensuring personalised and up-to-date information delivery. By making use of user data and feedback, Xiaotu enhances the library experience by offering tailored assistance and resources. However, it is important to note that as libraries transition into increasingly data-driven institutions, ethical considerations surrounding data privacy and user consent must also be addressed. Balancing personalisation with user privacy will be a key challenge moving forward, requiring clear policies and transparent communication with users.

Theme three: Enhanced user experiences

The role of Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies in enhancing user experience: When asked about the relevance of 4IR technologies in enhancing library services, one respondent highlighted the theme of enhancing usability and accessibility, emphasising the predictive capabilities of data-driven technologies in libraries. By analysing user behaviour and historical trends, libraries can proactively anticipate resource demands, ensuring the timely availability of relevant materials. As the respondent stated:

‘For example, we can anticipate (at least 80% – 85%) each year (even each semester) what types of books, articles users will be searching for’,

highlighting the potential of data analytics in streamlining collection development and resource allocation, ultimately improving user experience and accessibility. The findings are also in line with a study carried out by Romero (2018), who states that AI has the potential to enhance library users’ ability to find and retrieve new media with greater efficiency and effectiveness, while also introducing them to non-traditional materials. Asemi also argues that academic libraries’ information systems provide opportunities for improvement if AI is incorporated (Asemi et al. 2020). Previous studies also reveal that the Durban University of Technology (DUT) has successfully integrated AI into its library operations to enhance service delivery (Zondi et al. 2024). This integration encompasses the use of predictive analytics for resource management, automated cataloguing systems, and AI-driven chatbots designed to assist with user inquiries. Similarly, research shows that the University of Pretoria has adopted AI technologies to optimise the efficiency of several key library services (University of Pretoria Department of Library Services 2024; Zondi et al. 2024). Notable implementations include AI-powered RecSys that personalise user experiences based on their interests and usage patterns, as well as machine learning techniques employed for the management of digital collections. These innovations have facilitated greater access to relevant information, enhanced user engagement and enabled more strategic utilisation of library resources.

Collectively, these cases exemplify how South African academic libraries are using 4IR technologies to not only improve operational efficiency but also to deliver more responsive, personalised and future-ready library services. This therefore affirms the study’s results that the application of predictive and AI technologies marks a transformative shift in academic librarianship, fostering adaptive, user-centric service models that are aligned with the evolving expectations of 21st-century learners and researchers. Furthermore, a key technological advancement identified in the study is 24/7 Access via Virtual Assistants, where AI-driven catboats and digital assistants provide continuous user support. This meets the expectations of tech-savvy library patrons who require instant access to information beyond traditional operating hours.

Theme four: Cloud computing

The adoption of cloud computing in academic libraries: In the study, respondents were asked to identify some of the 4IR technologies and applications currently in use within their libraries. A prominent theme that emerged from the findings was the adoption of cloud computing in their libraries. One respondent specifically mentioned ‘cloud computing’, emphasising the increasing reliance on cloud-based infrastructure to improve accessibility, streamline operations and enhance the storage and management of digital resources in library environments. The research further indicates that the adoption of cloud technologies facilitates 24/7 access to online resources, highlighted by one respondent who noted that these 4IR technologies play a pivotal role in supporting uninterrupted availability and accessibility of digital content. This aligns with the study’s findings, where one respondent highlighted that user data enhances both usability and accessibility. Research conducted by Loebis et al. (2024) agrees and also argues that with cloud computing, it can be easier to access data anywhere at any time, just using the internet. Abudulsalami et al. (2024) also state that cloud-based services provide a means for libraries to free resources on information technologies and focus on libraries’ core competencies- manage, organise and disseminate information. A notable example is the increasing adoption of 3M Cloud Library applications, which provide seamless access to digital resources and improve overall user experience.

Sarmah (2019) states that cloud computing has a multitenancy value, whereby a single instance of particular software runs on a server, and it can serve multiple users simultaneously. Furthermore, he states that these capabilities are accessible over the network through various devices, including mobile phones, laptops, etc.

However, once again, it is important to note that a critical factor influencing the successful implementation of cloud computing in libraries is the issue of security. Given that cloud services operate over the internet and are hosted on external servers maintained by service providers, they inherently expose institutional data and applications to broader networks, making them potentially vulnerable to unauthorised access. This open accessibility, while advantageous for remote user access and operational flexibility in libraries, also creates opportunities for cyber threats such as hacking, data breaches and other forms of intrusion. As Karintseva et al. (2020) caution, security gaps in global cloud-based applications can be exploited by malicious actors, compromising sensitive information and disrupting service delivery. Therefore, for cloud computing to be both effective and sustainable within academic library environments, robust cybersecurity frameworks and data encryption protocols must be observed and implemented. Loebis (2024) further emphasises that while cloud computing offers unmatched accessibility and flexibility, its adoption must be accompanied by institutional policies and safeguards that address data integrity, user privacy and system resilience.

Theme five: Radio frequency identification technology

The adoption of radio frequency identification technology in academic libraries: A prominent theme that emerged from the data is the adoption and implementation of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technologies. Respondents made repeated references to terms such as ‘RFID’, ‘RFID technologies’, ‘RFID tags’ and ‘RFID technologies in books’. These responses indicate that libraries are leveraging RFID for core functions such as inventory management, book tracking and security enhancements.

Radio Frequency Identification, which involves the use of a wireless, non-contact radio system to transfer data from a tag affixed to library items, enables automatic identification and tracking. This technology facilitates streamlined inventory control and improved security measures while reducing human error in the circulation process. The integration of RFID thus represents a strategic shift towards more automated and accurate library operations. These findings are substantiated by existing literature. Solanki (2021) notes a growing trend among librarians to adopt advanced inventory management tools that increase both the efficiency and effectiveness of library services. Among these innovations, RFID has become particularly significant because of its capacity to optimise circulation services and bolster collection security. According to Sivasanka et al. (2020), RFID systems outperform traditional barcode technologies by providing a more efficient, user-friendly and cost-effective solution for managing library resources. Libraries that transition to RFID enjoy faster check-in and check-out processes, a reduction in manual tasks, and enhanced accuracy in inventory tracking. While the initial costs of implementing RFID may be high, the long-term operational benefits, including increased staff productivity and improved user satisfaction, justify the investment.

Theme six: Usage and traffic analytics

The role of usage and traffic analytics in informing library services: Respondents were asked to reflect on the utilisation of 4IR technologies for the aggregation of user data aimed at enhancing the efficiency of information service provision. An emerging trend identified in the data is the analysis of borrowing patterns and user traffic reporting. The data show that user data enables libraries to track borrowing trends and analyse user behaviours. One respondent in this study shared and stated:

‘We analyse borrowing trends.’ (Resources and Systems librarian)

while another respondent detailed:

‘We primarily use data analytics to understand user behaviour, such as borrowing patterns.’ (Faculty librarian)

These insights help libraries anticipate demand, maintain an optimal collection, and enhance user experience. Previous studies have shown that the user behaviour of the library can be analysed through the human-computer interaction logs, web browsing records and digital resource downloads of the library (Wang et al. 2023).

Libraries leverage user data to improve system functionality and accessibility. One librarian mentioned:

‘We intend to use users’ data in three broad strands, to improve resources and systems, etc.’

This suggests a strategic approach to ensuring that library services remain user-friendly and efficient. Nwaimo, confirm and support this statement by indicating that, through user data analysis, platforms can dynamically tailor content recommendations, product offerings and communication channels to enhance relevance and engagement for each user. Schimmel (2024) further states and elaborates that sophisticated algorithms and techniques and data analytics enable organisations to extract actionable insights, optimise decision-making processes and drive strategic initiatives. Its application has revolutionised operations across various industries, enhancing efficiency and effectiveness. This is corroborated by Tiwari (2024), who further states that the role of data analytics in business decision-making is transformative. Ncube and Ngulube (2025) highlights that libraries are using data analytics to gain insights into user behaviour and preferences, enabling them to design services that better meet the needs of their patrons.

These findings clearly illustrate the transformative role 4IR technologies, particularly data analytics, are playing in reshaping academic library services. The results confirm that users’ data can be strategically used to improve service efficiency, user engagement and resource allocation, which is a recurring theme in participant responses.

The findings show that library service delivery is becoming increasingly personalised and data-driven through the use of data on borrowing patterns, user behaviour and web traffic. Analysing user behaviour and borrowing trends as tools for predicting demand and tailoring collections accordingly were highlighted by several respondents as tools for tracking user needs. This demonstrates that this trend toward personalised services reflects a wider shift toward continuous optimisation, based on real-time insights, in the digital transformation within academic libraries. Futhermore, showcasing that as a result of the implementation of advanced security gates and gate count analytics, libraries are expanding their data collection capabilities beyond the digital sphere, providing comprehensive metrics of user engagement that inform space utilisation and operational planning beyond the digital sphere. Finally, the evidence suggests that academic libraries are adopting a user-centred, data-driven approach that is adaptive, responsive and aligned with the changing needs of their communities.

Figure 3 presents a word cloud developed from the research findings, depicting the risks associated with the implementation of Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) technologies within academic libraries (Ocks, 2026).

FIGURE 3: Word depiction of the risks associated with the implementation of technologies related to the Fourth Industrial Revolution at their institutions.

Findings related to research question 2

The second research question examined the concerns held by academic librarians regarding user privacy within the context of information service provision.

The second research question resulted in the following four key themes pertaining to data privacy and security within the library context to be revealed. These themes highlight critical concerns and practices necessary for safeguarding user information while upholding institutional integrity.

The following key themes emerged from the data:

Theme one: Unauthorised access attempts

Unauthorised access attempts and data privacy compliance: The data analysis of the risks associated with implementing 4IR technologies in libraries reveals several critical concerns, with unauthorised access attempts emerging as a significant issue. In the context of a library, this question is of particular importance because it assesses librarians’ awareness and provides insight into their perceptions of risks associated with 4IR technologies. When respondents were asked to indicate the risks associated with the implementation of 4IR technological tools in the library, one participant noted:

‘Unauthorised login attempt from let’s say a thief etc.’ (Senior librarian)

emphasising unauthorised access attempts as a key concern and highlighting it as a theme. This study aligns with documented cases reported by employees at other institutions regarding the security risks associated with the implementation of new technologies. Research conducted by Moyana and Chuma (2023) highlights that the National Archives and Records Service of South Africa (NARSSA) organisation faces a range of cybersecurity challenges stemming from the adoption of emerging technologies.

When employees were interviewed about their awareness of cybersecurity threats, one participant noted:

‘Some of the most common cyber-attacks we have encountered here at NARSSA are phishing attacks through our work emails, password attacks and Trojan horses. And, on a daily basis, we frequently experience computer viruses and worms. I think this is because people are using USBs and external hard drives in computers. So, these are some of the security threats we often experience.’ (Senior librarian)

This account reinforces the broader trend identified in this study, where digital transformation in information services brings about heightened vulnerability to cyber threats, particularly in environments with insufficient digital hygiene practices and awareness. Persadha et al. (2024) promote the use of biometric technologies to mitigate this. They state and elaborate that integrating biometric authentication technologies, including fingerprint, facial recognition, and iris scanning, enhances security by providing a more secure and convenient method for user authentication. Biometric data is unique to each individual, making it difficult for unauthorised users to gain access. Research shows that biometric technologies offer an effective and reliable method for authenticating individuals’ identities and are consequently employed across a wide range of sectors, including workplaces, financial and payment services and law enforcement. In certain contexts, biometrics may also enhance privacy by offering a higher level of security than traditional access control methods such as passwords or swipe cards (OVIC 2025).

The study’s results also show respondents highlighting the vulnerability of library systems to breaches, unauthorised logins, and phishing attacks, emphasising the potential exposure of sensitive user and institutional data. Cybersecurity threats, including hacking attempts and misuse of credentials, are bringing forward the need for stringent access controls and staff training. Furthermore, the reported instances of unauthorised logins, phishing attacks, and potential data breaches reveal critical weaknesses in current cybersecurity protocols. These threats not only endanger user privacy but also pose serious risks to institutional integrity, especially where sensitive administrative or historical records are managed. These findings align closely with the ‘Security for Privacy’ principle of the GAPP framework, which mandates that organisations implement appropriate safeguards to protect personal information from unauthorised access, use, or disclosure. The recurring security incidents identified in this study underscore the importance of embedding strong technical controls, consistent system monitoring and a well-trained workforce as integral components of a library’s privacy and data protection strategy.

These findings highlight the urgent need for robust access management systems, including multi-factor authentication and regular password audits. Equally important is the implementation of ongoing cybersecurity training for library staff, who are often the first line of defence against malicious tactics. Ultimately, as libraries expand their digital services and data repositories, investing in proactive cybersecurity measures is essential for safeguarding both user trust and the institution.

Theme two: Phishing or theft of sensitive data

Incidents of phishing and sensitive data theft: Librarians were asked what some of the risks are associated with the implementation of 4IR technological tools in the library. The results indicate that phishing attacks were identified as a notable concern among respondents, reflecting an awareness of the social engineering tactics often used to deceive users into revealing sensitive information, such as login credentials or personal data. Previous literature aligns with this risk, as the most common attack mechanism used by attackers is phishing; successful phishing can result in financial losses, reputational damage, and identity theft (Naqvi et al. 2023).

Akor et al. (2024) explain that both academic and public libraries face growing cyber threats, including phishing, malware, data breaches, and insider attacks. The shift to digital collections, online resources and cloud-based services has increased their vulnerability to sophisticated cyber-attacks. He further states that cybercriminals frequently impersonate trusted entities, such as library staff, academic institutions or publishers, to deceive users into clicking malicious links or downloading harmful attachments. Once compromised, attackers can exploit stolen credentials to gain unauthorised access to library systems, compromise user accounts, or escalate attacks (Samtani et al. 2020). A study by Saha and Roknuzzaman (2024) encourages libraries and librarians to educate users about cybersecurity best practices as it will become increasingly important to safeguard libraries against social engineering attacks, phishing attempts and other forms of cyber threats. Saha and Roknuzzaman elaborate and state that libraries could offer training programmes, workshops and resources to help users recognise and respond to potential security threats and risks. This approach is strongly supported by the ‘Notice’ construct of the GAPP Framework, which emphasises the obligation of organisations to clearly inform users about their privacy policies and data handling practices. Providing transparent, proactive communication not only empowers users but also strengthens institutional accountability and fosters a culture of informed data stewardship in academic library settings.

Theme three: Cloud crash

Cloud system failures in academic libraries: Studies show that instead of the conventional and traditional way of keeping documents and files on a proprietary hard drive for future access in libraries, with cloud computing, storage is now made easy through saving in remote databases (OgagaOghene & Antidius 2020). This enables libraries to extend their reach and impact, providing users with access to services anytime and from anywhere. In today’s digital environment, virtually anyone with an internet connection is likely engaging with some form of cloud computing on a regular basis. However, like every technological concept, cloud computing is not an exception in terms of trust and security issues (Yuvaraj 2015). Researchers caution that ensuring both privacy and security of cloud information is not easy (Hussaini et al. 2017). A study by Sahu (2015) reveals that people fear that their information will no longer be confidential, or it will be more prone to theft and loss because the libraries do not have ownership of the servers on which they keep their contents.

Additionally, concerns regarding cloud crashes indicate the risks of service disruptions, reinforcing the importance of contingency planning and reliable data backup systems. One respondent mentioned that ‘A system breach, a system crash or a cloud crash etc’. is a risk associated with the implementation of 4IR technological tools in the library.

Theme four: Routine data scrubbing and privacy protection systems

Implementation of data scrubbing and privacy protection measures: Respondents were asked to share how their libraries address privacy concerns while incorporating technological advances associated with the 4IR. One of the respondents reported addressing privacy concerns with processes in place, he states that:

‘We also have systems in place to address privacy concerns such as Deep Freeze, this resets the computers and ensures that all data is wiped off from our users on the computer and only the standard functions and systems remain on the computer etc.’ (Systems Administrator)

Systematic Data Protection strategies, such as Daily Data Scrubbing and Minimal Personal Information Storage, align with best practices for reducing exposure to breaches, while privacy-focused tools like Deep Freeze further reinforce system security. System maintenance and updates were also noted as crucial in mitigating vulnerabilities, with respondents stressing the need for continuous monitoring and security patches. Matonkar (2024) mentioned that regularly updating software and operating systems is the first line of defence against cyber-attacks. By staying current with updates, the library and computer benefit from the latest security and thus minimise the risk of malware infiltration. Ulven and Wangen (2021) concur and state that integrating these 4IR technologies into library security frameworks requires meticulous planning, investment in staff training, and rigorous adherence to best practices in cybersecurity governance (Ulven & Wangen 2021). Libraries must deploy advanced cybersecurity solutions, such as intrusion detection systems, threat intelligence platforms and security analytics tools, to detect and mitigate these evolving threats effectively. However, such solutions require significant expertise, investment and ongoing maintenance, which may exceed the capabilities of resource- constrained libraries (Shahzad et al. 2025). This limitation not only hinders the effective adoption of advanced technologies but also poses a significant risk, as inadequate implementation may expose libraries to security vulnerabilities and operational challenges.

Significance of the study

This study contributes to understanding the unique challenges faced by South African academic libraries as they adopt 4IR technologies. The study highlights the necessity of aligning innovation with ethical principles, legal compliance, and social justice imperatives. By strengthening privacy protections, investing in staff capacity and embedding ethical considerations into technological adoption, libraries can safeguard patron trust while advancing their mission as inclusive knowledge institutions.

Furthermore, it highlights the importance of investing in staff capacity and digital literacy to ensure librarians can effectively manage, evaluate and deploy these technologies. By embedding ethical considerations into technological adoption, implementing robust privacy protections and fostering user-centred service models, academic libraries can safeguard patron trust, promote equitable access to information and advance their mission as inclusive and responsive knowledge institutions. Additionally, continuous monitoring and evaluation of 4IR initiatives can help libraries anticipate emerging risks, adapt to changing user needs and maintain alignment with both institutional goals and societal expectations.

Conclusion

As South Africa navigates the opportunities and challenges of the 4IR, academic libraries are at a crossroads. They must embrace emerging technologies to remain relevant and responsive, while simultaneously protecting patron privacy and upholding constitutional rights. Ultimately, libraries cannot afford to view technological adoption in isolation from their broader social mission. To remain credible custodians of knowledge, they must ensure that innovation strengthens, rather than undermines, the values of equity, access and confidentiality. This requires a multidimensional strategy that integrates ethical governance, collaboration with stakeholders, and the cultivation of digital literacy among staff and users. By doing so, academic libraries can position themselves not only as adopters of 4IR technologies but as guardians of privacy and trust in an era increasingly defined by data and surveillance.

Acknowledgements

This article is based on research originally conducted as part of Yumnaa Ocks’s Doctorate of Philosophy thesis titled, ‘Information services provision in Library 4.0: an assessment of information professionals’ ethical practices and the POPI Act’, submitted to the Department of Library and Information Science, University of the Western Cape in 2025. The thesis is currently unpublished and not publicly available. The thesis was supervised by Oghenere Salubi. The manuscript has been revised and adapted for journal publication. The author confirms that the content has not been previously published or disseminated and complies with ethical standards for original publication.

This article is based on data from a larger study. One other article was published from the same thesis. The article focusing on Privacy Paradox in Industry 4.0: A review of library information services and data protection has been published in the South African Journal of Information Management, Volume 26.

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Yumnaa Ocks: Conceptualisation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Oghenere G. Salubi: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussion of results, approved the final version for submission and publication, and take responsibility for the integrity of its findings.

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, Yumnaa Ocks, upon reasonable request.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References